Top 7 WONDERS are
1. Great Wall of China
The Great Wall of China was built over 2,000 years ago, by Qin Shi Huangdi, the first emperor of China during the Qin (Ch'in) Dynasty (221 B.C - 206 B.C.). In Chinese the wall is called "Wan-Li Qang-Qeng" which means 10,000-Li Long Wall (10,000 Li = about 5,000 km).
After subjugating and uniting China from seven Warring States, the emperor connected and extended four old fortification walls along the north of China that originated about 700 B.C. (over 2500 years ago). Armies were stationed along the wall as a first line of defense against the invading nomadic Hsiung Nu tribes north of China (the Huns). Signal fires from the Wall provided early warning of an attack.
The Great Wall is one of the largest building construction projects ever completed. It stretches across the mountains of northern China, winding north and northwest of Beijing. It is constructed of masonry, rocks and packed-earth. It was over 5,000 km (=10,000 Li) long. Its thickness ranged from about 4.5 to 9 meters (15 to 30 feet) and was up to 7.5 meters (25 feet) tall.
During the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644), the Great Wall was enlarged to 6,400 kilometers (4,000 miles) and renovated over a 200 year period, with watch-towers and cannons added.
The Great Wall can be seen from Earth orbit, but, contrary to legend, is not visible from the moon, according to astronauts Neil Armstrong, Jim Lovell, and Jim Irwin.
The Great Wall of China was built over 2,000 years ago, by Qin Shi Huangdi, the first emperor of China during the Qin (Ch'in) Dynasty (221 B.C - 206 B.C.). In Chinese the wall is called "Wan-Li Qang-Qeng" which means 10,000-Li Long Wall (10,000 Li = about 5,000 km).
After subjugating and uniting China from seven Warring States, the emperor connected and extended four old fortification walls along the north of China that originated about 700 B.C. (over 2500 years ago). Armies were stationed along the wall as a first line of defense against the invading nomadic Hsiung Nu tribes north of China (the Huns). Signal fires from the Wall provided early warning of an attack.
The Great Wall is one of the largest building construction projects ever completed. It stretches across the mountains of northern China, winding north and northwest of Beijing. It is constructed of masonry, rocks and packed-earth. It was over 5,000 km (=10,000 Li) long. Its thickness ranged from about 4.5 to 9 meters (15 to 30 feet) and was up to 7.5 meters (25 feet) tall.
During the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644), the Great Wall was enlarged to 6,400 kilometers (4,000 miles) and renovated over a 200 year period, with watch-towers and cannons added.
The Great Wall can be seen from Earth orbit, but, contrary to legend, is not visible from the moon, according to astronauts Neil Armstrong, Jim Lovell, and Jim Irwin.
2. Lost City of Petra : Jordan
The ancient city of Petra was literally carved from the
sandstone cliffs of southern Jordan. There the Nabataeans built temples
and tombs, houses and halls, altars and aquaducts. And they built a
civilization that stood at the crossroads of the ancient Near East, a
center for commerce as the spice routes and trading trails of the time
all flowed through Petra.
At its peak the city of Petra was home to some 20,000 Nabataeans who, in the midst of the desert, built an ingenious system of waterways to provide their city with the precious liquid.
Since the early 1800s, when it was "rediscovered," clues to daily life in this "lost city of stone" are being unearthed and today we are beginning to see once again what Petra looked like 2,000 years ago.
Petra: Lost City of Stone first was conceived in 1994 by the Cincinnati Art Museum, which joined forces with the American Museum of Natural History in New York City in a decade-long effort to gather the 200 exceptional objects that comprise the exhibit. Items on display will include stone sculptures and reliefs, ceramics, metalwork, artworks in various media and other priceless artifacts. All are on loan from collections in Jordan and throughout Europe, and many are on display in the United States for the first time in history.
Stone sculptures and reliefs, ceramics, metalwork, stuccowork,
ancient inscriptions, and a selection of 19th-century paintings,
drawings and prints will be displayed alongside architectural groupings
from several well-known Nabataean monuments (the Nabataeans settled
Petra and created its awe-inspiring monuments, engineering marvels and
more).
Among the highlights of the exhibition are several pieces recently discovered by archaeologists working in Jordan as well as a monumental bust of Dushara, on public display outside Jordan for the first time. Also for the first time since its first-century creation, the limestone likeness of Nike the Greek goddess of Victory owned by the Cincinnati Art Museum and her wheel of the zodiac surrounding the bust of Tyche, the goddess of prosperity, owned by the Jordanian museum, have been brought together as originally intended.
Petra was discovered by archaeologists in the early 1800s and has since become one of the premier tourist sites in the Middle East, especially after its use as a location for the popular 1989 feature film Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade.
Petra: Lost City of Stone is organized by Cincinnati Art Museum and American Museum of Natural History, New York, under the patronage of Her Majesty Queen Rania Al-Abdullah of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan. Air transportation generously provided by Royal Jordanian.
About Petra
Introduction
 Men on Camels |
At its peak the city of Petra was home to some 20,000 Nabataeans who, in the midst of the desert, built an ingenious system of waterways to provide their city with the precious liquid.
Since the early 1800s, when it was "rediscovered," clues to daily life in this "lost city of stone" are being unearthed and today we are beginning to see once again what Petra looked like 2,000 years ago.
Petra ReDiscovered
Petra means "rock" in Greek, fitting for a town literally carved out of sandstone desert cliffs. It is located about three hours south of Amman, the capital of Jordan, and was founded by a nomadic Arab tribe known as the Nabataeans several centuries before Christ's birth. The Nabataeans were renowned for their great skills in trade, agriculture, engineering, and architectural stone-carving.Petra: Lost City of Stone first was conceived in 1994 by the Cincinnati Art Museum, which joined forces with the American Museum of Natural History in New York City in a decade-long effort to gather the 200 exceptional objects that comprise the exhibit. Items on display will include stone sculptures and reliefs, ceramics, metalwork, artworks in various media and other priceless artifacts. All are on loan from collections in Jordan and throughout Europe, and many are on display in the United States for the first time in history.
 The country of Jordan is located in the Middle East, northwest of Saudi Arabia and south of Syria. |
Among the highlights of the exhibition are several pieces recently discovered by archaeologists working in Jordan as well as a monumental bust of Dushara, on public display outside Jordan for the first time. Also for the first time since its first-century creation, the limestone likeness of Nike the Greek goddess of Victory owned by the Cincinnati Art Museum and her wheel of the zodiac surrounding the bust of Tyche, the goddess of prosperity, owned by the Jordanian museum, have been brought together as originally intended.
Petra was discovered by archaeologists in the early 1800s and has since become one of the premier tourist sites in the Middle East, especially after its use as a location for the popular 1989 feature film Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade.
Petra: Lost City of Stone is organized by Cincinnati Art Museum and American Museum of Natural History, New York, under the patronage of Her Majesty Queen Rania Al-Abdullah of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan. Air transportation generously provided by Royal Jordanian.
3. Statue of Christ the Redeemer : Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
HISTORY
The idea of building a large statue atop Corcovado was first suggested in the mid-1850s, when Vincentian priest, Pedro Maria Boss, suggested placing a Christian monument on Mount Corcovado to honour Princess Isabel, princess regent of Brazil and the daughter of Emperor Pedro II; Princess Isabel did not act on this request. In 1889, the country became a republic and, with the official separation of state and church, the idea was dismissed.
The second proposal for a landmark statue on the mountain was made in 1920, by the Catholic Circle of Rio. The group organized an event called Semana do Monumento ("Monument Week") to attract donations and collect signatures to support the building of the statue. The donations came mostly from Brazilian Catholics. The designs considered for the "Statue of the Christ" included a representation of the Christian cross, a statue of Jesus with a globe in his hands, and a pedestal symbolizing the world.[7] The statue of Christ the Redeemer with open arms, a symbol of peace, was chosen.
Local engineer Heitor da Silva Costa designed the statue; it was sculpted by Polish-French sculptor Paul Landowski.
The face of the statue was created by Romanian sculptor Gheorghe Leonida, who was born in Galati, Romania, in 1893. He studied sculpture at the Fine Arts Conservatory in Bucharest, then, after three more years' study in Italy, he won a prize for the sculpture Reveil ("Awakening"). After that he moved to Paris, where his work, Le Diable ("The Devil"), was awarded the Grand Prix. Becoming famous in France as portraitist, he was included by Paul Landowski in the team that started working on Christ the Redeemer in 1922. Gheorghe Leonida contributed by portraying Jesus Christ's face on the statue, which made him famous.
A group of engineers and technicians studied Landowski's submissions and the decision was made to build the structure out of reinforced concrete (designed by Albert Caquot) instead of steel, more suitable for the cross-shaped statue. The outer layers are soapstone, chosen for its enduring qualities and ease of use. Construction took nine years, from 1922 to 1931 and cost the equivalent of US$250,000 ($3,300,000 in 2014). The monument was opened on October 12, 1931. During the opening ceremony, the statue was meant to be lit by a battery of floodlights which would be turned on remotely by shortwave radio pioneer Guglielmo Marconi, stationed 5,700 miles (9,200 km) away in Rome, Italy,but poor weather affected the signal and they had to be turned on by workers in Rio.
In October 2006, on the 75th anniversary of the statue's completion, Archbishop of Rio, Cardinal Eusebio Oscar Scheid, consecrated a chapel, named after Brazil's patron saint—Our Lady of the Apparition, under the statue. This allows Catholics to hold baptisms and weddings there.
The statue was struck by lightning during a violent thunderstorm on February 10, 2008, and suffered some damage to the fingers, head and eyebrows. A restoration effort was put in place by the Rio de Janeiro state government to replace some of the outer soapstone layers and repair the lightning rods installed on the statue. It was damaged by lightning again, on January 17, 2014, where a finger on the right hand was dislodged.
In 2010, a massive restoration of the statue was undertaken. The statue was washed, the mortar and soapstone that cover the statue were replaced, the internal structure of iron was restored, and the monument was made waterproof. One incident which occurred during the restoration, was an act of vandalism, wherein paint was sprayed along the arm. Mayor Eduardo Paes called the act "a crime against the nation". The culprits later apologised and presented themselves to the police.
In 1990, further restoration work was conducted through an agreement among several organizations, including the Archdiocese of Rio de Janeiro, media company Rede Globo, oil company Shell do Brasil, environmental regulator IBAMA, National Institute of Historic and Artistic Heritage, and the city government of Rio de Janeiro.
More work on the statue and its environs was conducted in 2003 and early 2010. In 2003, a set of escalators, walkways, and elevators were installed to facilitate access to the platform surrounding the statue. The four-month restoration in 2010,focused on the statue itself. The statue's internal structure was renovated and its soapstone mosaic covering was restored by removing a crust of fungi and other microorganisms and repairing small cracks. The lightning rods located in the statue’s head and arms were also repaired, and new lighting fixtures were installed at the foot of the statue.
The restoration involved one hundred people and used more than 60,000 pieces of stone taken from the same quarry as the original statue. During the unveiling of the restored statue, it was illuminated with green-and-yellow lighting in support of the Brazil national football team playing in the 2010 FIFA World Cup.
Maintenance work needs to be conducted periodically due to the strong winds and erosion to which the statue is exposed, as well as lightning strikes. The original pale stone is no longer available in sufficient quantities, and replacement stones are increasingly darker in hue.
The idea of building a large statue atop Corcovado was first suggested in the mid-1850s, when Vincentian priest, Pedro Maria Boss, suggested placing a Christian monument on Mount Corcovado to honour Princess Isabel, princess regent of Brazil and the daughter of Emperor Pedro II; Princess Isabel did not act on this request. In 1889, the country became a republic and, with the official separation of state and church, the idea was dismissed.
The second proposal for a landmark statue on the mountain was made in 1920, by the Catholic Circle of Rio. The group organized an event called Semana do Monumento ("Monument Week") to attract donations and collect signatures to support the building of the statue. The donations came mostly from Brazilian Catholics. The designs considered for the "Statue of the Christ" included a representation of the Christian cross, a statue of Jesus with a globe in his hands, and a pedestal symbolizing the world.[7] The statue of Christ the Redeemer with open arms, a symbol of peace, was chosen.
The face of the statue was created by Romanian sculptor Gheorghe Leonida, who was born in Galati, Romania, in 1893. He studied sculpture at the Fine Arts Conservatory in Bucharest, then, after three more years' study in Italy, he won a prize for the sculpture Reveil ("Awakening"). After that he moved to Paris, where his work, Le Diable ("The Devil"), was awarded the Grand Prix. Becoming famous in France as portraitist, he was included by Paul Landowski in the team that started working on Christ the Redeemer in 1922. Gheorghe Leonida contributed by portraying Jesus Christ's face on the statue, which made him famous.
A group of engineers and technicians studied Landowski's submissions and the decision was made to build the structure out of reinforced concrete (designed by Albert Caquot) instead of steel, more suitable for the cross-shaped statue. The outer layers are soapstone, chosen for its enduring qualities and ease of use. Construction took nine years, from 1922 to 1931 and cost the equivalent of US$250,000 ($3,300,000 in 2014). The monument was opened on October 12, 1931. During the opening ceremony, the statue was meant to be lit by a battery of floodlights which would be turned on remotely by shortwave radio pioneer Guglielmo Marconi, stationed 5,700 miles (9,200 km) away in Rome, Italy,but poor weather affected the signal and they had to be turned on by workers in Rio.
A view of the statue at night
The statue was struck by lightning during a violent thunderstorm on February 10, 2008, and suffered some damage to the fingers, head and eyebrows. A restoration effort was put in place by the Rio de Janeiro state government to replace some of the outer soapstone layers and repair the lightning rods installed on the statue. It was damaged by lightning again, on January 17, 2014, where a finger on the right hand was dislodged.
In 2010, a massive restoration of the statue was undertaken. The statue was washed, the mortar and soapstone that cover the statue were replaced, the internal structure of iron was restored, and the monument was made waterproof. One incident which occurred during the restoration, was an act of vandalism, wherein paint was sprayed along the arm. Mayor Eduardo Paes called the act "a crime against the nation". The culprits later apologised and presented themselves to the police.
Restoration
More work on the statue and its environs was conducted in 2003 and early 2010. In 2003, a set of escalators, walkways, and elevators were installed to facilitate access to the platform surrounding the statue. The four-month restoration in 2010,focused on the statue itself. The statue's internal structure was renovated and its soapstone mosaic covering was restored by removing a crust of fungi and other microorganisms and repairing small cracks. The lightning rods located in the statue’s head and arms were also repaired, and new lighting fixtures were installed at the foot of the statue.
The restoration involved one hundred people and used more than 60,000 pieces of stone taken from the same quarry as the original statue. During the unveiling of the restored statue, it was illuminated with green-and-yellow lighting in support of the Brazil national football team playing in the 2010 FIFA World Cup.
Maintenance work needs to be conducted periodically due to the strong winds and erosion to which the statue is exposed, as well as lightning strikes. The original pale stone is no longer available in sufficient quantities, and replacement stones are increasingly darker in hue.
4. Machu Picchu : Peru
7,000 feet above sea level and nestled on a small hilltop between
the Andean Mountain Range, the majestic city soars above the Urabamba
Valley below. The Incan built structure has been deemed the “Lost
Cities”, unknown until its relatively recent discovery in 1911. Archaeologists
estimate that approximately 1200 people could have lived in the area,
though many theorize it was most likely a retreat for Incan rulers.
Due to it’s isolation from the rest of Peru, living in the area full
time would require traveling great distances just to reach the nearest
village.
Separated into three areas - agricultural, urban, and religious -
the structures are arranged so that the function of the buildings
matches the form of their surroundings. The agricultural terracing
and aqueducts take advantage of the natural slopes; the lower areas
contain buildings occupied by farmers and teachers, and the most important
religious areas are located at the crest of the hill, overlooking
the lush Urubamba Valley thousands of feet below.
Hikers, tourists, and the early explorers describe similar emotions as they climb their way through the Inca Trail. Many call the experience magical. Glancing out from the Funerary Rock Hut on all the temples, fields, terraces, and baths seems to take you to another time. Blending in with the hillside itself, many say the area creates a seamless and elegant green paradise, making it a must for anyone who travels to Peru.
A Brief Overview
Separated into three areas - agricultural, urban, and religious -
the structures are arranged so that the function of the buildings
matches the form of their surroundings. The agricultural terracing
and aqueducts take advantage of the natural slopes; the lower areas
contain buildings occupied by farmers and teachers, and the most important
religious areas are located at the crest of the hill, overlooking
the lush Urubamba Valley thousands of feet below.Hikers, tourists, and the early explorers describe similar emotions as they climb their way through the Inca Trail. Many call the experience magical. Glancing out from the Funerary Rock Hut on all the temples, fields, terraces, and baths seems to take you to another time. Blending in with the hillside itself, many say the area creates a seamless and elegant green paradise, making it a must for anyone who travels to Peru.
5. Chichén Itzá : Mexico
soaring pyramids, massive temples, startling carved columns and do-or-die sports fields.
Chichen Itza is one of Mexico’s most popular tourist destination, and rightfully so. The Yucatan's grandest archaeological site is Chichen-Itza, a UNESCO World Heritage area of immense cultural significance.Chichen Itza is perhaps the largest, most famous and most accessible Mayan site, about 125 kilometres west of Cancun and Cozumel. This ancient Mayan ruin, a major tourist stop in Mexico's Yucatan Peninsula, is a rugged place of
The focal point of the region, an amalgam of an older Mayan
city and newer Toltec settlement, is the towering Castillo pyramid, which is
fraught with cosmological symbolism. Its four sides contain 365 steps
(depicting the solar year), 52 panels (for each year in the Mayan century as
well as each week in the solar year) and 18 terraces (for the 18 months in the
religious year). Inside, the Castillo is an interesting templeaccessible up a
narrow stairway.
Mayan sports included a game with a
soccer-sized ball that had its own intricate rules and provided exciting competition for huge
crowds of spectators.
The enormous Chichen-Itza court where this game was played is the largest ever found and is
lined with fascinating carvings that display the rules and details of the sacred game. One carving even shows the
captain of the losing game being beheaded.
The site also contains a sacred well, the astronomical Observatory, the imposing Temple of
Warriors, the reclining Chac Mool figure, a form of classic Maya sculpture believed to have served as an altar for
sacrifices, and the Nunnery.
During the fall and spring equinoxes, the sun's shadow forms an enormous snake's body, which
lines up with the carved stone snake head at the bottom of the Castillo pyramid.
HISTORY of Chichén Itzá
AtChichen Itza, the Sacred Cenote is a natural well 60
metres in diameter with sheer, escape-proof walls plunging 22 metres. Winsome
maidens aside, excavations in 1882 and 1968 discovered that strapping six-foot
warriors - old scores settled? - and infants were also tossed into the pit.
Across from El Castillo, the Temple of the Warriors is also
known as the Temple of the Thousand Columns. On top of it there is a stone on
which steaming human hearts were offered to the gods.Paintings on the outdoor pillars have all but disappeared,
but inside an older temple beneath this one, colors are as bright as when they
were freshly mixed from vegetable juice and mashed insects.
Several smaller buildings hold interest mostly for their
relief sculptures depicting dire events of the time. But one that really makes
you sit up and pay attention is a huge ball park.
Each of two 27-foot-high walls running its 480-foot length has a small stone ring near the top,
through which a hard rubber ball had to be shot.
When you cross the highway bisecting the archeological zone, you leave behind unpleasant murals
and evidence of human sacrifice, for these are buildings from pre-Toltec times. Unfortunately the Spaniards
destroyed all religious records.
In consequence, nobody knows for certain that the ornate structure, 70 yards long and 18 yards
high, was actually a nunnery.
However, built in 600 A.d. beside a church, it has many little rooms reminiscent of the convents
in Spain so they named it the Nunnery.
In Chichen Itza you can also find the Caracol (Spanish for snail), so called for its spiral
staircase. The substructure is believed to have been completed around 700 A.D., and the 48-foot circular tower
added later. This is the all-important observatory.
6. Roman Colosseum : Italy
HISTORY
Construction of the Colosseum began under the rule of the Emperor Vespasian in around 70–72 AD, funded by the spoils taken from the Jewish Temple after the Siege of Jerusalem. The site chosen was a flat area on the floor of a low valley between the Caelian, Esquiline and Palatine Hills, through which a canalised stream ran. By the 2nd century BC the area was densely inhabited. It was devastated by the Great Fire of Rome in AD 64, following which Nero seized much of the area to add to his personal domain. He built the grandiose Domus Aurea on the site, in front of which he created an artificial lake surrounded by pavilions, gardens and porticoes. The existing Aqua Claudia aqueduct was extended to supply water to the area and the gigantic bronze Colossus of Nero was set up nearby at the entrance to the Domus Aurea.
Although the Colossus was preserved, much of the Domus Aurea was torn
down. The lake was filled in and the land reused as the location for
the new Flavian Amphitheatre. Gladiatorial schools and other support
buildings were constructed nearby within the former grounds of the Domus
Aurea. According to a reconstructed inscription found on the site, "the
emperor Vespasian ordered this new amphitheatre to be erected from his
general's share of the booty." This is thought to refer to the vast
quantity of treasure seized by the Romans following their victory in the
Great Jewish Revolt
in 70 AD. The Colosseum can be thus interpreted as a great triumphal
monument built in the Roman tradition of celebrating great victories,placating the Roman people instead of returning soldiers. Vespasian's
decision to build the Colosseum on the site of Nero's lake can also be
seen as a populist gesture of returning to the people an area of the
city which Nero had appropriated for his own use. In contrast to many
other amphitheatres, which were located on the outskirts of a city, the
Colosseum was constructed in the city centre; in effect, placing it both
literally and symbolically at the heart of Rome.
The Colosseum had been completed up to the third story by the time of Vespasian's death in 79. The top level was finished and the building inaugurated by his son, Titus, in 80. Dio Cassius recounts that over 9,000 wild animals were killed during the inaugural games of the amphitheatre. Commemorative coinage was issued celebrating the inauguration.
The building was remodelled further under Vespasian's younger son, the newly designated Emperor Domitian, who constructed the hypogeum, a series of underground tunnels used to house animals and slaves. He also added a gallery to the top of the Colosseum to increase its seating capacity.
In 217, the Colosseum was badly damaged by a major fire (caused by lightning, according to Dio Cassius) which destroyed the wooden upper levels of the amphitheatre's interior. It was not fully repaired until about 240 and underwent further repairs in 250 or 252 and again in 320. An inscription records the restoration of various parts of the Colosseum under Theodosius II and Valentinian III (reigned 425–455), possibly to repair damage caused by a major earthquake in 443; more work followed in 484 and 508. The arena continued to be used for contests well into the 6th century, with gladiatorial fights last mentioned around 435. Animal hunts continued until at least 523, when Anicius Maximus celebrated his consulship with some venationes, criticised by King Theodoric the Great for their high co
During the early days of the Colosseum, ancient writers recorded that the building was used for naumachiae (more properly known as navalia proelia) or simulated sea battles. Accounts of the inaugural games held by Titus in AD 80 describe it being filled with water for a display of specially trained swimming horses and bulls. There is also an account of a re-enactment of a famous sea battle between the Corcyrean (Corfiot) Greeks and the Corinthians. This has been the subject of some debate among historians; although providing the water would not have been a problem, it is unclear how the arena could have been waterproofed, nor would there have been enough space in the arena for the warships to move around. It has been suggested that the reports either have the location wrong, or that the Colosseum originally featured a wide floodable channel down its central axis (which would later have been replaced by the hypogeum).
Sylvae or recreations of natural scenes were also held in the arena. Painters, technicians and architects would construct a simulation of a forest with real trees and bushes planted in the arena's floor, and animals would then be introduced. Such scenes might be used simply to display a natural environment for the urban population, or could otherwise be used as the backdrop for hunts or dramas depicting episodes from mythology. They were also occasionally used for executions in which the hero of the story – played by a condemned person – was killed in one of various gruesome but mythologically authentic ways, such as being mauled by beasts or burned to death.
HISTORY
Construction of the Colosseum began under the rule of the Emperor Vespasian in around 70–72 AD, funded by the spoils taken from the Jewish Temple after the Siege of Jerusalem. The site chosen was a flat area on the floor of a low valley between the Caelian, Esquiline and Palatine Hills, through which a canalised stream ran. By the 2nd century BC the area was densely inhabited. It was devastated by the Great Fire of Rome in AD 64, following which Nero seized much of the area to add to his personal domain. He built the grandiose Domus Aurea on the site, in front of which he created an artificial lake surrounded by pavilions, gardens and porticoes. The existing Aqua Claudia aqueduct was extended to supply water to the area and the gigantic bronze Colossus of Nero was set up nearby at the entrance to the Domus Aurea.
The Colosseum had been completed up to the third story by the time of Vespasian's death in 79. The top level was finished and the building inaugurated by his son, Titus, in 80. Dio Cassius recounts that over 9,000 wild animals were killed during the inaugural games of the amphitheatre. Commemorative coinage was issued celebrating the inauguration.
The building was remodelled further under Vespasian's younger son, the newly designated Emperor Domitian, who constructed the hypogeum, a series of underground tunnels used to house animals and slaves. He also added a gallery to the top of the Colosseum to increase its seating capacity.
In 217, the Colosseum was badly damaged by a major fire (caused by lightning, according to Dio Cassius) which destroyed the wooden upper levels of the amphitheatre's interior. It was not fully repaired until about 240 and underwent further repairs in 250 or 252 and again in 320. An inscription records the restoration of various parts of the Colosseum under Theodosius II and Valentinian III (reigned 425–455), possibly to repair damage caused by a major earthquake in 443; more work followed in 484 and 508. The arena continued to be used for contests well into the 6th century, with gladiatorial fights last mentioned around 435. Animal hunts continued until at least 523, when Anicius Maximus celebrated his consulship with some venationes, criticised by King Theodoric the Great for their high co
Use Of Colosseum
The Colosseum was used to host gladiatorial shows as well as a variety of other events. The shows, called munera, were always given by private individuals rather than the state. They had a strong religious element but were also demonstrations of power and family prestige, and were immensely popular with the population. Another popular type of show was the animal hunt, or venatio. This utilized a great variety of wild beasts, mainly imported from Africa and the Middle East, and included creatures such as rhinoceros, hippopotamuses, elephants, giraffes, aurochs, wisents, Barbary lions, panthers, leopards, bears, Caspian tigers, crocodiles and ostriches. Battles and hunts were often staged amid elaborate sets with movable trees and buildings. Such events were occasionally on a huge scale; Trajan is said to have celebrated his victories in Dacia in 107 with contests involving 11,000 animals and 10,000 gladiators over the course of 123 days.During the early days of the Colosseum, ancient writers recorded that the building was used for naumachiae (more properly known as navalia proelia) or simulated sea battles. Accounts of the inaugural games held by Titus in AD 80 describe it being filled with water for a display of specially trained swimming horses and bulls. There is also an account of a re-enactment of a famous sea battle between the Corcyrean (Corfiot) Greeks and the Corinthians. This has been the subject of some debate among historians; although providing the water would not have been a problem, it is unclear how the arena could have been waterproofed, nor would there have been enough space in the arena for the warships to move around. It has been suggested that the reports either have the location wrong, or that the Colosseum originally featured a wide floodable channel down its central axis (which would later have been replaced by the hypogeum).
Sylvae or recreations of natural scenes were also held in the arena. Painters, technicians and architects would construct a simulation of a forest with real trees and bushes planted in the arena's floor, and animals would then be introduced. Such scenes might be used simply to display a natural environment for the urban population, or could otherwise be used as the backdrop for hunts or dramas depicting episodes from mythology. They were also occasionally used for executions in which the hero of the story – played by a condemned person – was killed in one of various gruesome but mythologically authentic ways, such as being mauled by beasts or burned to death.
7. Taj Mahal : India
Abdul Hamid Lahauri, the author of the Badshahnama, the official history of Shah Jahan's reign, calls Taj Mahal rauza-i munawwara, which means the illumined or illustrious tomb.
Soon after the Taj Mahal's completion, Shah Jahan was deposed by his son Aurangzeb and put under house arrest at nearby Agra Fort. Upon Shah Jahan's death, Aurangzeb buried him in the mausoleum next to his wife.
By the late 19th century, parts of the buildings had fallen badly into disrepair. During the time of the Indian rebellion of 1857, the Taj Mahal was defaced by British soldiers and government officials, who chiselled out precious stones and lapis lazuli from its walls. At the end of the 19th century, British viceroy Lord Curzon ordered a sweeping restoration project, which was completed in 1908.He also commissioned the large lamp in the interior chamber, modelled after one in a Cairo mosque. During this time the garden was remodelled with British-style lawns that are still in place today.
Soon after the Taj Mahal's completion, Shah Jahan was deposed by his son Aurangzeb and put under house arrest at nearby Agra Fort. Upon Shah Jahan's death, Aurangzeb buried him in the mausoleum next to his wife.
By the late 19th century, parts of the buildings had fallen badly into disrepair. During the time of the Indian rebellion of 1857, the Taj Mahal was defaced by British soldiers and government officials, who chiselled out precious stones and lapis lazuli from its walls. At the end of the 19th century, British viceroy Lord Curzon ordered a sweeping restoration project, which was completed in 1908.He also commissioned the large lamp in the interior chamber, modelled after one in a Cairo mosque. During this time the garden was remodelled with British-style lawns that are still in place today.
